Chest
Occupational and Environmental Lung DiseaseChronic Airflow Limitation: Its Relationship to Work in Dusty Occupations
Section snippets
Definitions
The nonmalignant pulmonary conditions characterized by airway dysfunction are often grouped together as the obstructive lung diseases,3 a title which embodies several clinical syndromes.3, 6 These include: asthma (acute recurrent episodic reversible airflow limitation), simple chronic bronchitis (mucus hypersecretion), chronic obstructive bronchitis (characterized by mucus hypersecretion and chronic airflow limitation, largely irreversible), and emphysema (defined in anatomical terms as an
Epidemiology Including Risk Factors
Epidemiologic studies have identified a number of risk factors which influence the distribution of these clinical syndromes in populations.3, 4 Host factors implicated include age and sex, past and present health experience particularly in relation to respiratory illnesses, and genetic characteristics such as the ability to produce effective protease inhibitors, ABO and secretor status and the liability to immunoglobulin E mediated allergic reactions. Environmental factors other than tobacco
Occupational Exposures
It is now generally accepted that asthma and simple chronic bronchitis may be caused by occupational exposures.7, 8 This is implicit in the general acceptance of the term occupational asthma, used to describe asthma, associated with exposures to various organic and inorganic workplace pollutants; however, problems of definition remain.7 General acceptance of the term industrial bronchitis9 implies recognition of its causal association with exposures, usually heavy, to a wide variety of
Association vs Causality
Associations between occupational exposure(s) and chronic processes such as those resulting in mucus hypersecretion and in airflow limitation can often be demonstrated.4,5,11 Not all such associations are causal, and there are several classic examples in epidemiology to illustrate this point. How then do we distinguish between association and causality, given the chronic nature of these disease processes, their background level in the general population without occupational exposure and the
Cross-Sectional Surveys and Matched Pair Studies of Men in Dusty Occupations
In 1973, Higgins11 reviewed the published studies of chronic pulmonary disease of men engaged in dusty occupations. Almost all were cross-sectional in design, comparing dust-exposed and non-exposed workers. In almost all, there were higher prevalences of bronchitis and lower ventilatory function in the former compared to the latter. The differences remained after standardization for smoking. However, exposure response relationships were not consistent, and Higgins was reluctant to ascribe the
Longitudinal Studies of Men in Dusty Occupations
In unraveling the role not only of environmental exposures but also of host factors in the causation of a disease process as slow to develop as chronic airflow limitation, longitudinal studies have on occasions proved more powerful than cross-sectional studies. This is not surprising when the agent(s) (eg, exposure to community air pollution) are weak and the effects small relative to those of smoking. Even the effect of smoking has in certain populations only been identified by longitudinal as
Studies Based on Pathologic Material
If emphysema is defined in pathologic terms as an increase in the size of the distal airspaces and destruction of their walls,3 its relationship, potential or real, to occupational exposure can only be conclusively determined from examination of pathologic material. The development of quantitative methods of analysis of emphysema in whole lung sections has provided the impetus for this type of study.56, 57, 58
Table 3 summarizes the results of selected studies on coal miners;59, 60, 61, 62 other
Natural History of Chronic Airflow Limitation
It is not easy to write the natural history of a chronic disease process particularly when, as Speizer and Tager4 point out, “There is no one point in time when patient, physician, and epidemiologist will agree that chronic obstructive airways disease has begun.” Two distinct schools of thought have emerged based on two major prospective epidemiologic studies.64, 65 In what came to be known as the British hypothesis,3, 4 chronic bronchitis (mucus hypersecretion) and chronic airflow limitation
Underlying Mechanisms
Whether or not inorganic dust particles will induce reaction in airways and/or lung parenchyma depends, in addition to dose, on their physical, chemical, and perhaps their biological properties. Size, shape, and density are likely to determine where in the airway they will be deposited, and hence, the mechanism(s) of clearance to which they will be subjected. Chemical properties including solubility will affect retention. Both chemical and biological properties influence the nature of the
Unanswered Questions, Future Research and Clinical Implications
In the light of this evidence, it is impossible to escape the conclusion that exposure in certain dusty occupations may cause chronic airflow limitation. The criteria called for by Hill to distinguish association from causality (namely consistency, strength, coherence and dose-response relationships) have all been fulfilled for coal mining63 and for certain industrial exposures,17 including for the latter decreased risk following withdrawal. The answer to the first part of the question posed in
References (83)
An overview of obstructive lung diseases
Med Clin of N Am
(1981)The epidemiology of chronic respiratory disease
Prev Med
(1973)Occupational exposures in relation to symptomatology and lung function in a community population
Environ Res
(1977)- et al.
A comparison of three methods of measuring emphysema
Human Pathol
(1970) - et al.
Multiple regression analysis of quantified aetiological, clinical and postmortem pathological variables related to respiratory disease in coal workers
Ann Occ Hyg
(1982) - et al.
Increased levels of airway responsiveness as a risk factor for development of chronic obstructive lung disease: what are the issues?
Chest
(1984) Interaction of immunoglobulin E and cigarette smoke: predisposition to symptomatic lung disease
Chest
(1983)- et al.
Interstitial lung disease: current concepts of pathogenesis, staging and therapy
Am J Med
(1981) - et al.
Pathogenesis of emphysema
Chest
(1983) Grain dust and health
Chest
(1979)
Asbestos associated diseases: science, public policy and litigation
Chest
Pneumoconiosis in Europe yesterday, today and tomorrow
Env J Respir Dis
Epidemiology of chronic mucus hypersecretion and obstructive airways disease
Epi Rev
Epidemiologic studies in human populations
Definitions of emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma and airflow obstruction: 25 years on from the Ciba symposium
Thorax
Occupational asthma: an overview
J Occ Med
Occupational asthma—problems of definition
J Occ Med
Industrial bronchitis
Br J Ind Med
Industrial bronchitis and other nonspecific conditions affecting the airways
Relative importance of cigarette smoking in occupational lung disease
Br J Ind Med
Decreases in VC and FEV1 with time indicators for effects of smoking and air pollution
Bull Europ Physiopathol Resp
Noncomparability of longitudinally and cross-sectionally determined annual change in spirometry
Am Rev Respir Dis
Occupational lung disease: past record and future trend using the asbestos case as an example
Clin Invest Med
Occupational exposure and 12-year spirometric changes among Paris area workers
Br J Ind Med
Longitudinal study of lung function in coal miners
Thorax
Longitudinal changes in lung function: comparison of employees of hard rock mining industry and general population
Am Rev Respir Dis
Lung function and respiratory symptoms in silicotic and non silicotic gold miners
Am Rev Respir Dis
Dust exposure, chronic bronchitis and emphysema
Eur J Respir Dis
The environment and disease: association or causation
Proc Roy Soc Med
Tobacco smoking and longevity
Science
The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits
Br Med J
Current status of small airway disease
Chest
The pathology of small airways in chronic airflow limitation
Eur J Respir Dis
Role of dust in the working environment in development of chronic bronchitis in British coal miners
Br J Ind Med
Ventilatory function in Nigerian coal workers
Br J Ind Med
Respiratory disease in Utah coal miners
Am Rev Respir Dis
Cited by (147)
Animal production, insecticide use and self-reported symptoms and diagnoses of COPD, including chronic bronchitis, in the Agricultural Health Study
2019, Environment InternationalCitation Excerpt :It is possible that the biological response to animal production exposures may manifest in chronic bronchitis symptoms but not lead to a COPD diagnosis. This hypothesis aligns with what has been observed for other dusty trades (Becklake, 1985). Limitations in our exposure assessment may also explain some of the discrepancy.
Pneumoconioses
2015, Murray and Nadel's Textbook of Respiratory Medicine: Volume 1,2, Sixth EditionEnvironmental Determinants of Lung Aging
2014, The Lung: Development, Aging and the Environment: Second EditionTobacco smoking and environmental risk factors for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
2014, Clinics in Chest MedicineCitation Excerpt :Coal mining has been shown to be associated with the risk of developing emphysema, 6 times more so than in nonminers.64,65 Other mining activities that are generally characterized by silica exposure, such as gold, iron, and copper mining, and quarrying industries such as talc, potash, slate, and kaolin quarrying, have been reported to carry an increased risk of COPD.66 Petrochemical, mining, and steel industries are associated with chronic exposures to metals that are associated with an increased risk of COPD.
Occupational Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: An Update
2012, Clinics in Chest MedicineCitation Excerpt :In contrast to occupational asthma, occupational COPD is complicated by frequent concomitant tobacco use and the long time between exposure and development of airflow limitation. Thus, the term occupational COPD is infrequently used in clinical practice.15 In addition to asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, work-related exposures can be associated with other obstructive airway disorders that do not meet standard criteria for COPD.