Review of the LiteratureWhole-body vibration and postural stress among operators of construction equipment: A literature review
Introduction
Work-related injuries and illnesses pose a continuing threat to the health and well being of U.S. workers. The construction industry has been recognized historically as having higher rates of fatality, injury, and illness than other industries Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS], 1996, McVittie, 1995. In 1994, there were an estimated 218,800 lost workday injuries in the construction industry (BLS, 1996). Construction also had the second highest incidence rate for sprains and strains.
Operating engineers (OEs), also known as hoisting and portable engineers, operate and maintain heavy construction equipment, such as cranes, bulldozers, front-end loaders, rollers, backhoes, and graders. They may also work as mechanics. The operators use these pieces of equipment to perform four main tasks: (a) the building of roads, bridges, tunnels, and dams; (b) the construction of buildings and power plants; (c) the removal of earth materials and grading earth surfaces and in the replacement of concrete, blacktop, and other paving materials; and (d) the constructing of drainage systems, pipelines, and other related tasks, such as blasting (Stern & Haring-Sweeney, 1997).
A recent estimate shows that there are currently 540,000 operating engineers in the United States (BLS, 2003; this estimate does not include mechanics or oilers) who are exposed to whole-body vibration. A majority of these OEs (90%) perform excavating and paving work (e.g., operating dozers, loaders, excavators), while the remaining are crane operators (10%). Because of the varied duties performed by OEs, they have the potential for exposure to numerous hazards that can be episodic in nature. Some of the health hazards among operators using heavy construction equipment are: whole-body vibration, awkward postural requirements (including static sitting), psychosocial factors, dust, diesel exhaust, asphalt and/or welding fumes, noise, temperature extremes, time pressure, and shift work Buchholz et al., 1997, Stern & Haring-Sweeney, 1997, Zimmerman et al., 1997. Despite the immediate hazards of the trade, there are few reliable data that characterize these hazards and their health outcomes. Thus it is imperative that information be gathered to assist in designing better working conditions for these workers, which will enhance their health and well being, productivity, morale, and efficiency in performing their jobs. Pilot research (Buchholz et al., 1997) has shown that the major ergonomic exposures among OEs are whole-body vibration, repetitive arm motions, awkward postures (including static sitting), and poor seat design. There is a current need to do research focusing on ergonomic exposure data that might contribute to the knowledge of the development of musculoskeletal diseases among these operators.
Whole-body vibration (WBV) produces systemic affects on the entire body. Information regarding the chronic effects of WBV is still in infancy. However, there is abundant information regarding subjective responses to vibration. Some limitations of these studies are that they were performed in laboratory settings and that they only evaluated sinusoidal vibration, and thus are not representative of real-life conditions. In general, there are not sufficient data available to characterize the exposures and to better understand the health outcomes among operators of construction equipment.
Working posture is believed to be influenced by many factors including workstation layout, location and orientation of work, individual work methods, and the workers' anthropometric characteristics Hsiao & Keyserling, 1990, Keyserling et al., 1988. Awkward posture is one of the important risk factors in the development of musculoskeletal disorders Chaffin & Andersson, 1984, Keyserling et al., 1988, Putz-Anderson, 1988. Awkward postures refer to joint positions significantly deviated from the neutral body postures and may include static positioning or constrained body postures (twisting or elevated positioning; Putz-Anderson, 1988). Exposure to awkward posture can result in localized fatigue or pain and contribute to the development of musculoskeletal disorders. The relationship between awkward posture and the development of musculoskeletal disorders of the neck, shoulder, and trunk has been reported recently (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health [NIOSH], 1997).
Section snippets
Whole-body vibration
In reviewing the literature, a representative sample of epidemiological papers that studied exposure to whole body vibration among various populations were selected including, operating engineers (or operators of construction equipment), tractor drivers, and drivers of forklifts and freight-container tractors. Most of these studies had a control group for comparison.
A simple descriptive study by Zimmerman et al. (1997) provided insight into the specific population of interest (operating
Awkward posture
Awkward posture is another important risk factor observed among operating engineers. The significance of assessing the postural requirements of operators exposed to whole-body vibration has been echoed in the recent literature (e.g., Bongers et al., 1988, Bongers et al., 1990, Bovenzi & Zadini, 1992, Johanning, 1991). But in reviewing the literature it was found that there are very limited, if any, studies quantifying awkward postures among operators of heavy construction equipment. Thus other
Summary
Previous studies have indicated that operators of heavy construction equipment (or other related equipment) are afflicted by musculoskeletal injuries of the arms, shoulders, neck, and lower back. From this review, it is shown that WBV and the postural requirements of work (both static and awkward postures) are important risk factors that contribute to the development of musculoskeletal disorders among OEs. In spite of this, very little research has been performed that systematically
Acknowledgements
This work was performed when the corresponding author was at the University of Massachusetts Lowell as a Research Assistant on the Construction Occupational Health Project. This project was funded by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) through the Center to Protect Workers' Rights (CPWR) (Grant # U02/CCU312014). The authors would like to thank Drs. David Wegman and Michael Ellenbecker for providing helpful comments on earlier drafts. The authors also thank Emmett
Dr. N. Kumar Kittusamy is a Biomedical Engineer with the Health Hazard Control Branch at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)—Spokane Research Lab (SRL). Prior to joining NIOSH—SRL, he was an Assistant Professor in the Dept. of Safety Technology at Marshall University. He developed the Ergonomics and Industrial Hygiene options for the Master's program at Marshall University. He has provided private consulting in the area of industrial safety and ergonomics. He has
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Dr. N. Kumar Kittusamy is a Biomedical Engineer with the Health Hazard Control Branch at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)—Spokane Research Lab (SRL). Prior to joining NIOSH—SRL, he was an Assistant Professor in the Dept. of Safety Technology at Marshall University. He developed the Ergonomics and Industrial Hygiene options for the Master's program at Marshall University. He has provided private consulting in the area of industrial safety and ergonomics. He has also served as an expert witness in court cases involving safety and ergonomic issues. He has presented at various conferences, both at national and international levels. He holds a B.S. in Industrial Engineering and an M.S. in Public Health with concentration in Ergonomics and Industrial Hygiene, both degrees are from the University of South Florida, and a Doctor of Science (Sc.D.) with a major in Ergonomics and minors in Industrial Hygiene and Epidemiology/Biostatistics from the College of Engineering at the University of Massachusetts Lowell. His current research interests include whole-body vibration, musculoskeletal epidemiology and workstation design.
Bryan Buchholz, Ph.D., is currently a Professor in the Department of Work Environment at the University of Massachusetts Lowell, where he teaches courses in ergonomics and occupational biomechanics. He also is the Director of the University of Massachusetts Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology program. His doctorate is in Bioengineering and he has also received a M.S. degree in Bioengineering, a M.S.E. in Applied Mechanics, and a B.S.E. in Chemical Engineering, all from The University of Michigan. His research efforts focus primarily on the development of biomechanical models that provide a better understanding of the pathomechanics of work-related musculoskeletal disorders so that effective interventions may be perfected. He is also interested in the development of ergonomic exposure assessment tools, especially those employing bioinstrumentation. Dr. Buchholz is currently involved in a number of research projects studying risk factors and intervention methods for work-related musculoskeletal disorders in the construction industry.