SPES: A psychological test system to diagnose environmental hazards

doi:10.1016/0892-0362(96)00033-5

Neurotoxicology and Teratology

Volume 18, Issue 4, July–August 1996, Pages 485-491

https://doi.org/10.1016/0892-0362(96)00033-5 Get rights and content

Abstract

The effects of unfavorable work environmental conditions can be studied using psychological performance measures and subjective ratings of mood and symptoms. In the present article the rationale for such investigations is discussed, and the computerized performance evaluation system developed at the Swedish National Institute of Occupational Health is presented. The background and the research experience leading to the system's development are described, and references to the numerous empirical studies demonstrating its applicability to different research objectives are given. Also included is information regarding the technical requirements for running the SPES tests.

References (56)

F Gamberale
The use of behavioral and psychphysiological methods in the monitoring of health at the worksite
Environ. Res.
(1993)
A Iregren
Psychological test performance among foundry workers exposed to low levels of manganese
Neurotoxicol. Teratol.
(1990)
A Iregren et al.
Human experimental MIBK exposure: Effects on heart rate, performance, and symptoms
Environ. Res.
(1993)
U Landström et al.
Acceptable levels of sounds with different spectral characteristics during the performance of a simple and a complex nonauditory task
J. Sound Vibr.
(1993)
D Mergler et al.
Early nervous system dysfunction among workers with long-term exposure to manganese
Environ. Res.
(1994)
K Anger
Assessment of neurotoxicity in humans
W.K Anger
Worksite behavioral research: Results, sensitive methods, test batteries, and the transition from laboratory data to human health
Neurotoxicology
(1990)
B Anshelm Olson
Effects of organic solvents on behavioral performance of workers in the paint industry
Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol.
(1982)
B Anshelm Olson et al.
Reaction time changes among steel workers exposed to solvent vapors. A longitudinal study
Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health
(1981)
B Anshelm Olson et al.
Coexposure to toluene and p-xylene in man: Central nervous functions
Br. J. Ind. Med.
(1985)

A.D Baddeley

A 3 min reasoning test based on grammatical transformation

Psychon. Sci.

(1968)

D Bartram

Computer-based assessment

Int. Rev. Ind. Organ. Psychol.

(1994)

S.A Elofsson et al.

Exposure to organic solvents. A cross-sectional epidemiologic investigation on occupationally exposed car and industrial spray painters with special reference to the nervous system

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

(1980)

A Enander

Effects of moderate cold on performance of cognitive and psycho-motor tasks

Ergonomics

(1987)

F Gamberale et al.

Exposure to trichloroethylene II. Psychological functions

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

(1976)

F Gamberale et al.

Exposure to methylene Chloride II. Psychological functions

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

(1975)

F Gamberale et al.

Exposure to methylene chloride II. Psychological functions

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

(1975)

F Gamberale et al.

Exposure to white spirit II. Psychological functions

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

(1975)

F Gamberale et al.

Exposure to xylene and ethylbenzene III. Effects on central nervous functions

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

(1978)

F Gamberale et al.

Acute effects of ELF electromagnetic fields

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

(1989)

F Gamberale et al.

Exposure to styrene. II. Psychological functions

Work Environ. Health

(1974)

F Gamberale et al.

Methylchloroform exposure: II. Psychophysiological functions

Work Environ. Health

(1973)

F Gamberale et al.

Toluene exposure II. Psychophysiological functions

Work Environ. Health

(1972)

F Gamberale et al.

SPES: The computerized Swedish Performance Evaluation System. Background, critical issues, empirical data, and a user's manual

F Gamberale et al.

Effects of moderate cold and heat on performance of sensory-motor and cognitive tasks: Department of Psychology

University of Stockholm, Report No. 692

(1989)

F Gamberale et al.

The effect of styrene vapor on the reaction time of workers in the plastic boat industry

F Gamberale et al.

The effect of anaesthetic gases on the psychomotor and perceptual functions of anaesthetic nurses

Work Environ. Health

(1974)

H Hänninen

Twenty-five years of behavioral toxicology within occupational medicine: A personal account

Am. J. Ind. Med.

(1985)

Cited by (78)

Neurotoxicity of organic solvents: An update on mechanisms and effects
2022, Advances in Neurotoxicology
Organic solvents are a diverse set of chemicals and chemical mixtures that are among the most widely used class of chemicals in industry and commerce. Many solvents are volatile leading to a risk of inhalation exposure. Typically, solvents are also highly lipid soluble and readily partition into lipid-rich brain tissue. In the nervous system, solvents act acutely to alter the function of multiple ligand-gated and voltage-gated nerve membrane ion channels to cause acute neurological dysfunctions, behavioral impairments, and eventually generalized CNS depression. The momentary solvent concentration in the brain determines the strength of these acute effects. Upon repeated or chronic exposures, organic solvents can also reduce neuronal plasticity, generate reactive oxygen species, disrupt nerve membrane integrity, increase intracellular calcium, induce neuroinflammation and potentially cause long-term impairments. Chronic occupational exposures to organic solvents have been linked to impairments of cognitive function, mood, memory, vision, and hearing. Hearing deficits are augmented by co-exposures to noise. Peripheral neuropathy and developmental neurotoxicity are also concerns. In this chapter, types of organic solvents, their uses, mode of actions, and the evidence for acute and chronic exposures to produce neurotoxic effects in humans and laboratory animals are discussed.
Current evolution of neurobehavioral methods
2022, Advances in Neurotoxicology
Citation Excerpt :
Several neurobehavioral batteries were developed specifically for use in agricultural workers or with environmentally toxin exposed populations (Anger and Cassnrot, 1994). Work has been completed to validate or develop neurobehavioral test batteries in, for example, Spanish-speaking populations (Casaletto et al., 2016; Gershon et al., 2020; Rohlman et al., 2001a), China (Liang et al., 1997; Zhou et al., 2002), Thailand (Rohitrattana et al., 2014), Korea (Chung et al., 2007; Sakong et al., 2007), Sweden (Iregren et al., 1996), South Africa (London et al., 1997), Bangladesh (Khan et al., 2021), and several Asian populations (Chung et al., 2003). Broadly speaking, there is a great need to ensure neurobehavioral batteries are culturally sensitive (Bowler and Lezak, 2015).
Workplace exposures to neurotoxicants cause a variety of functional impairments, with the profile of deficits depending on the chemical nature, dose and duration of exposure, and individual characteristics that might confer susceptibility. The functional impairments, or neurobehavioral deficits, can include impairments in cognition, mood and mental state, motor or sensory function. Finland's Helena Hänninen was the first to systematize the process of evaluating patients with workplace exposures in the 1960’s, using multiple neuropsychological tests that formed a “battery.” Subsequently, several test systems were developed to assess nervous system deficits in a sensitive and reliable manner. Unlike neurological examinations, which are mainly qualitative (or semi-quantitative) in nature, neurobehavioral tests quantify the magnitude of nervous system deficits. Hence, neurobehavioral assessment is especially useful for detecting sub-clinical nervous system deficits in cross-sectional studies. Neurobehavioral methods are still evolving, with further validation of assessments for different subpopulations (e.g., different languages and cultures, socioeconomic status, and education level). Computerized testing became popular in the 1980s, given their consistency, ease, and economy of administration. Remote computerized testing will allow for the implementation of very large studies at a much lower cost than in-person assessments, but validation of those methods is needed. Neurobehavioral tests must dive deeper (e.g., mapping test results to brain mechanisms) and expand broadly to new frontiers (e.g., routine exams and telemedicine) to fulfill the promise that could only be imagined when the field first discovered the power of those tests to detect subtle, subclinical deficits due to occupational chemical exposures.
An acute exposure to ozone impairs human olfactory functioning
2018, Environmental Research
Ozone is a ubiquitous and irritant gas. We questioned whether an acute exposure to 0.2 ppm ozone impaired olfactory functioning.
Healthy, normosmic subjects were exposed according to a parallel group design either to 0.2 ppm ozone (n = 15) or to sham (n = 13) in an exposure chamber for two hours. Possible irritating effects were assessed by questionnaire (range 0–5). The detection threshold of n-butanol was measured with the Sniffin’ Sticks test before and after exposure. Olfactory thresholds were logarithmized and a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measurements was carried out to test the effects of exposure (ozone vs. sham) and time (before vs. after exposure). Additionally, nasal secretions were taken at a preliminary examination and after exposure to determine interleukins 1ß and 8.
No irritating effects to the upper airways were observed. In the ozone group, the median score for cough increased from 0 to 2 at the end of exposure (sham group 0 and 0, respectively, p < 0.001). The ANOVA showed a main effect for ozone exposure (F (1, 26) = 27.6, p = 0.0002), indicating higher olfactory thresholds in the ozone group. Concentrations of interleukins in nasal secretions did not increase following ozone exposure.
This study shows a clear impairment of olfactory functioning following an acute exposure to 0.2 ppm ozone.
Does seasonal allergic rhinitis increase sensitivity to ammonia exposure?
2017, International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health
Allergic inflammation in the upper airways represents a wide-spread health issue: Little is known about whether it increases sensitivity to airborne chemicals thereby challenging established exposure limits that neglect such differences in susceptibility. To investigate the role of pre-existing allergic inflammation, 19 subjects with seasonal allergic rhinitis (SAR) and 18 control subjects with low risk of sensitization were exposed for 4 h to ammonia in two concentrations (cross-over design): 2.5 ppm (odor threshold) and 0–40 ppm (occupational exposure limit: 20 ppm TWA). Prior to the whole-body exposure, it was confirmed that subjects with SAR showed persistent inflammation outside the pollen season as indicated by increased exhaled nitric oxide and total immunoglobulin E in serum compared to controls. Despite concentration-dependent increases in chemosensory perceptions and acute symptoms, SAR status did not modulate subjective effects of exposure. Moreover, SAR status did not affect the investigated physiological endpoints of sensory irritation: While eye-blink recordings confirmed weak ocular irritation properties of ammonia at 0–40 ppm, this effect was not enhanced in SAR subjects compared to controls. Irrespective of SAR status, exposure to 0–40 ppm ammonia did not result in a cortisol stress response, objective nasal obstruction as measured with anterior active rhinomanometry, or an inflammatory response as indexed by substance P, tumor-necrosis-factor α, and high-mobility-group protein 1 in nasal lavage fluid. At least for the malodorous compound ammonia, these results do not support the hypothesis that SAR enhances chemosensory effects in response to local irritants. Before generalizing this finding, more compounds as well as sensitization to perennial allergens need to be investigated.
Neurobehavioral effects of exposure to propionic acid revisited-Does psychosocial stress interfere with distractive effects in volunteers?
2016, NeuroToxicology
Citation Excerpt :
The logarithmically labeled visual analogue scales ranged from barely detectable to strongest imaginable (numeric range: 1–1000). Ratings of health complaints (no complaints/severe complaints) were collected using 7-point scales (Seeber et al., 1997; van Thriel et al., 2003a), while specific symptoms were assessed using the “Acute Symptoms” subtest of the Swedish Performance Evaluation System (SPES, Iregren et al., 1996) which has been expanded to comprise acute chemosensory-mediated symptoms (Seeber et al., 2002; van Thriel et al., 2003b). Participants rated the severity of the 29 symptoms using a 6-point scale which ranged from not at all (= 0) to very, very much (=5).
Local irritants stimulate the nervous system via chemosensory pathways that trigger cognitive distraction, subjective complaints about impaired health, and physiological defense reflexes (e.g. eye-blinks). At workplaces and in the environment chemical exposures often co-occur with psychosocial stress. This study investigated if stress modulates adverse effects of exposure to the local irritant and malodorant propionic acid (PA). Forty-eight participants were randomly assigned to an experimental (false negative feedback + salient surveillance) or control group. In a cross-over design, both groups were exposed for 4 h to PA in concentrations of 0.3 and 0–20 ppm (time-weighted average = 10 ppm). In the experimental group, the stress protocol induced moderate psychosocial stress as indicated by salivary cortisol and subjective responses. Despite concentration-dependent increases in chemosensory perceptions and symptoms, the level of exposure to PA had no impact upon the results of four out of six neurobehavioral tests. In the sustained attention test, there was a significant increase in error rates that corresponded to the exposure levels. However, a concentration-dependent impairment of spatial working memory and an adverse increase in eye-blink frequency were restricted to the control group. Stressed participants had shorter simple reaction times and high eye-blink frequency irrespective of exposure suggesting enhanced alertness. Psychosocial stress increased complaints, ocular irritation and unspecific symptoms at the end of the 0.3 ppm exposure to a level that was comparable with that in the control group during exposure to 0–20 ppm. Results indicate that the adverse effects of a local irritant and psychosocial stress are non-additive.
Neurofunctional dopaminergic impairment in elderly after lifetime exposure to manganese
2014, NeuroToxicology
Citation Excerpt :
The Digit Span (from WAIS) was used to evaluate short-time memory, attention and auditory recall; the test consisted of two different tests components: (i) Digits Forward (repeating numbers forward), and (ii) Digits Backward (repeating numbers backward). Motor coordination was assessed with the five subtasks from the Luria Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (Golden et al., 1980), and the Finger Tapping test from the computerized SPES battery (Swedish Performance Evaluating System) (Iregren et al., 1996). The Digit Symbol (from WAIS) (Wechsler, 1997) test was used to assess perceptual and motor speed; it consisted of digit-symbol pairs, followed by a list of digits.
Manganese (Mn) is an essential element that can become neurotoxic through various exposure windows over the lifespan. While there is clear evidence of Mn neurotoxicity in pediatric and adult occupational populations, little is known about effects in the elderly who may exhibit enhanced susceptibilities due to compromised physiology compared to younger adults. In the province of Brescia, Italy, the Valcamonica area has been the site of three ferroalloy plants operating from 1902 to 2001. Metal emissions of Mn and to a lesser extent lead (Pb) have impacted the surrounding environment, where a high prevalence of Parkinsonism was previously observed. This study aimed to assess neurocognitive and motor functions in healthy elderly subjects residing for most of their lifetime in Valcamonica or in a reference area unimpacted by ferroalloy plant activity.
Subjects were enrolled for extensive neurobehavioral assessment of motor, cognitive and sensory functions. Exposure was assessed with 24 h personal air sampling for PM10 airborne particles, surface soil and tap water measurement at individual households, Mn levels in blood and urine and Pb in blood. Dose–response relationships between exposure indicators and biomarkers and health outcomes were analyzed with generalized (linear and logistic) additive models (GAM).
A total of 255 subjects (55% women) were examined; most (52.9%) were within the 65–70 years age class. Average airborne Mn was 26.41 ng/m³ (median 18.42) in Valcamonica and 20.96 ng/m³ (median 17.62) in the reference area. Average Mn in surface soil was 1026 ppm (median 923) in Valcamonica and 421 ppm (median 410) in the reference area. Manganese in drinking water was below the LDL of 1 μg/L. The GAM analysis showed significant association between airborne Mn (p = 0.0237) and the motor coordination tests of the Luria Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery. The calculation of the Benchmark Dose using this dose–response relationship yielded a lower level confidence interval of 22.7 ng/m³ (median 26.4). For the odor identification score of the Sniffin Stick test, an association was observed with soil Mn (p = 0.0006) and with a significant interaction with blood Pb (p = 0.0856). Significant dose–responses resulted also for the Raven's Colored Progressive Matrices with the distance from exposure point source (p = 0.0025) and Mn in soil (p = 0.09), and for the Trail Making test, with urinary Mn (p = 0.0074). Serum prolactin (PRL) levels were associated with air (p = 0.061) and urinary (p = 0.003) Mn, and with blood Pb (p = 0.0303). In most of these associations age played a significant role as an effect modifier.
Lifelong exposure to Mn was significantly associated with changes in odor discrimination, motor coordination, cognitive abilities and serum PRL levels. These effects are consistent with the hypothesis of a specific mechanism of toxicity of Mn on the dopaminergic system. Lead co-exposure, even at very low levels, can further enhance Mn toxicity.

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

DemonstrationSPES: A psychological test system to diagnose environmental hazards

Abstract

Environ. Res.

Neurotoxicol. Teratol.

Environ. Res.

J. Sound Vibr.

Environ. Res.

Assessment of neurotoxicity in humans

Worksite behavioral research: Results, sensitive methods, test batteries, and the transition from laboratory data to human health

Neurotoxicology

Effects of organic solvents on behavioral performance of workers in the paint industry

Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol.

Reaction time changes among steel workers exposed to solvent vapors. A longitudinal study

Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health

Coexposure to toluene and p-xylene in man: Central nervous functions

Br. J. Ind. Med.

A 3 min reasoning test based on grammatical transformation

Psychon. Sci.

Computer-based assessment

Int. Rev. Ind. Organ. Psychol.

Exposure to organic solvents. A cross-sectional epidemiologic investigation on occupationally exposed car and industrial spray painters with special reference to the nervous system

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

Effects of moderate cold on performance of cognitive and psycho-motor tasks

Ergonomics

Exposure to trichloroethylene II. Psychological functions

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

Exposure to methylene Chloride II. Psychological functions

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

Exposure to methylene chloride II. Psychological functions

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

Exposure to white spirit II. Psychological functions

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

Exposure to xylene and ethylbenzene III. Effects on central nervous functions

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

Acute effects of ELF electromagnetic fields

Scand. J. Work Environ. Health

Exposure to styrene. II. Psychological functions

Work Environ. Health

Methylchloroform exposure: II. Psychophysiological functions

Work Environ. Health

Toluene exposure II. Psychophysiological functions

Work Environ. Health

SPES: The computerized Swedish Performance Evaluation System. Background, critical issues, empirical data, and a user's manual

Effects of moderate cold and heat on performance of sensory-motor and cognitive tasks: Department of Psychology

University of Stockholm, Report No. 692

The effect of styrene vapor on the reaction time of workers in the plastic boat industry

The effect of anaesthetic gases on the psychomotor and perceptual functions of anaesthetic nurses

Work Environ. Health

Twenty-five years of behavioral toxicology within occupational medicine: A personal account

Am. J. Ind. Med.

Demonstration
SPES: A psychological test system to diagnose environmental hazards