Environmental and biological monitoring of chloroform in indoor swimming pools
Abstract
The presence of chloroform as the result of disinfection with sodium hypochlorite was demonstrated in the water and ambient air of indoor swimming pools. Environmental monitoring was performed in 12 indoor swimming pools in northern Italy and the level of human exposure was assessed. Biological monitoring performed by gas chromatography on human plasma and alveolar air samples evidenced that the uptake of chloroform in swimmers varies according to the intensity of the physical activity and age. The elimination of chloroform in alveolar air in one subject showed a very short half-life (from 20 to 27 min) and a complete clearance within 10 h after the end of exposure.
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Influence of disinfection techniques on aliphatic disinfection byproduct formation and cytotoxicity/genotoxicity in swimming pools: A review
2023, Chemical Engineering JournalSwimming pools is a significant exposure scenario of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) owning to its much higher DBPs concentration compared to drinking water. Although many reviews regarding occurrence, formation and impacts of swimming pools DBPs have been published, a comprehensive reviewer regarding the influence of disinfection techniques on DBP formation and cytotoxicity/genotoxicity in swimming pools is lacking. In this review, the occurrences of highly toxic emerging DBPs as well as their formation and cytotoxicity/genotoxicity in different disinfection techniques were analyzed. For emerging aliphatic DBPs, the average concentrations of haloaldehydes (HALs), haloamides (HAMs), haloacetonitriles (HANs), haloketones (HKs), and halonitromethane (HNMs) in global swimming pools were 255, 290, 23.8, 31.6, and 6.0 μg/L, which are about 3–5 times higher than these in global drinking water. The average formation potentials of 9 classes of aliphatic DBPs in chlorine, UV/chlorine, ozone/chlorine, copper-silver ion (CSI)/chlorine, electrochemically generated mixed oxidant (EGMO), ClO2, and trichloroisocyanuric acid (TCCA) were 645, 897, 470, 546, 1306, 85.4, and 195 μg/L, respectively. ClO2 and TCCA showed good performance on the control of organic DBPs, while they caused the formation of other DBPs e.g., chlorate, chlorite, and cyanuric acid. Combined advanced oxidation processes with emerging disinfects may be a good way to control the aliphatic DBPs in swimming pools. This is the first attempt to highlight the occurrence of emerging DBPs in swimming pools as well as their formation potential and toxicity in different disinfection techniques, which can help swimming controller to select the best disinfection technique for DBP elimination.
Dramatically increased disinfection byproducts in swimming pool water caused by commonly used urea degradants
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Exposure to 1, 4-dioxane and disinfection by-products due to the reuse of wastewater
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Investigating the effects of design and management factors on DBPs levels in indoor aquatic centres
2019, Science of the Total EnvironmentDisinfection by-products (DBPs) in indoor swimming pool water and air have long been a critical human health risk concern. This study investigated the effects of several indoor swimming pool design and management factors (e.g. ventilation, water treatment, pool operations, pool type) on the concentrations of DBPs, such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and chloramines, in pool water and air. Two sampling campaigns, A and B, were carried out to measure the concentrations of DBPs under different conditions. In both campaigns, 46 pool water samples, seven tap water samples, and 28 ambient air samples were collected and analyzed. Regression models were also developed and validated for investigating the combined effects of design and management factors on total trihalomethanes (TTHM) and trichloramine. The model results show that pool water characteristics (e.g., total organic content, temperature, conductivity, pH and alkalinity) and management factors (e.g., the number of bathers and sprayers) have direct effects on DBP concentrations. Pool water characteristics such as UV absorbance, hardness, and oxidation-reduction potential and a management factor UV intensity have inverse effects on DBPs levels. Based on the correlation analysis, other factors such as fan speed, fresh air, pool age, and basin area were found to be correlated with the concentrations of individual THMs and trichloramine in both water and air. It was also observed that the concentration of THMs varies with pool type. It is note worthy that the effects of the number of sprayers was quantified for the first time. This study comprehensively assessed pool design and management factors and identified their effects on DBPs, providing indoor swimming pool facilities with useful information to control DBPs in the indoor swimming environment.
Illicit drugs and pharmaceuticals in swimming pool waters
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