Meta-analysis of risk factors associated with WPV against healthcare workers
| Any type of WPV | Studies (n) | OR | 95% CI | I2 (%) | P for heterogeneity |
| Male (ref: female) | 17 | 1.00 | 0.87 to 1.14 | 75.50 | <0.001 |
| Shift work (ref: no) | 8 | 1.91 | 1.42 to 2.56 | 83.00 | <0.001 |
| Higher education level (ref: associate’s degree or vocational diploma) | 7 | 1.31 | 0.86 to 1.99 | 85.00 | <0.001 |
| Older workers (ref: ≤30 years old) | 17 | 0.86 | 0.76 to 0.97 | 89.20 | <0.001 |
| Health professionals with training in violence management (ref: no training in violence management) | 3 | 1.44 | 0.57 to 3.62 | 93.70 | <0.001 |
| Physicians (ref: other healthcare professionals) | 2 | 1.43 | 0.76 to 2.72 | 80.40 | 0.024 |
| Longer work tenure (ref: <5 years) | 12 | 0.89 | 0.74 to 1.06 | 93.00 | <0.001 |
| Longer working hours per week (ref: ≤40 hours per week) | 3 | 2.24 | 1.27 to 3.97 | 84.20 | <0.001 |
| Non-physical violence | Studies (n) | OR | 95% CI | I2 (%) | P for heterogeneity |
| Male (ref female) | 28 | 1.00 | 0.86 to 1.16 | 81.30 | <0.001 |
| Shift work (ref: no) | 13 | 1.53 | 1.21 to 1.93 | 83.80 | <0.001 |
| Higher education level (ref: associate’s degree or vocational diploma) | 5 | 1.30 | 1.11 to 1.54 | 0.00 | 0.497 |
| Older workers (ref: ≤30 years old) | 25 | 0.99 | 0.97 to 1.01 | 81.30 | <0.001 |
| Health professionals with training in violence management (ref: no training in violence management) | 4 | 1.29 | 0.76 to 2.18 | 87.80 | <0.001 |
| Physicians (ref: other healthcare professionals) | 10 | 1.50 | 1.00 to 2.26 | 78.50 | <0.001 |
| Nurses (ref: other healthcare professionals) | 9 | 1.79 | 1.10 to 2.89 | 76.40 | <0.001 |
| Working in urban settings (ref: working in rural settings) | 3 | 1.43 | 1.03 to 1.98 | 16.20 | 0.31 |
| White populations (ref: non-white population) | 2 | 2.26 | 1.35 to 3.77 | 53.60 | 0.116 |
| Longer work tenure (ref: <5 years) | 23 | 1.13 | 1.01 to 1.26 | 95.10 | <0.001 |
| Longer working hours per week (ref: ≤40 hours per week) | 5 | 1.41 | 1.11 to 1.80 | 88.60 | <0.001 |
| Physical violence | Studies (n) | OR | 95% CI | I2 (%) | P for heterogeneity |
| Male (ref: female) | 18 | 1.33 | 1.09 to 1.62 | 76.60 | <0.001 |
| Shift work (ref: no) | 10 | 1.77 | 0.92 to 3.41 | 93.50 | <0.001 |
| Higher education level (ref: associate’s degree or vocational diploma) | 4 | 1.08 | 0.77 to 1.52 | 67.90 | 0.025 |
| Older workers (ref: ≤30 years old) | 16 | 0.98 | 0.97 to 1.00 | 50.80 | 0.01 |
| Unmarried (ref: married) | 7 | 1.27 | 1.13 to 1.44 | 26.40 | 0.228 |
| Physicians (ref: other healthcare professionals) | 4 | 2.66 | 1.15 to 6.19 | 65.00 | 0.036 |
| Nurses (ref: other healthcare professionals) | 5 | 3.66 | 1.42 to 9.41 | 67.60 | 0.015 |
| White populations (ref: non-white population) | 2 | 2.23 | 1.34 to 3.71 | 51.90 | 0.149 |
| Longer work tenure (ref: <5 years) | 12 | 1.25 | 1.08 to 1.46 | 90.20 | <0.001 |
| Longer working hours per week (ref: ≤40 hours per week) | 2 | 1.76 | 1.43 to 2.16 | 0.00 | 0.93 |
ref, reference; WPV, workplace violence.