Short sleep duration* | Poor sleep quality† | Poor sleep-related ADL score‡ | Insomnia§ | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n¶ | % (95% CI) | p Value | n | % (95% CI) | p Value | n | % (95% CI) | p Value | n | % (95% CI) | p Value | |
Total | 2512 | 37.6 (35.3 to 39.9) | – | 1163 | 19.2 (17.6 to 20.8) | – | 1545 | 24.8 (23.1 to 26.5) | – | 537 | 8.8 (7.9 to 9.8) | – |
Sociodemographic characteristics | ||||||||||||
Age group (years) | 0.036 | 0.084 | 0.001 | 0.027 | ||||||||
18–29 | 620 | 35.1 (31.9 to 38.2) | 336 | 19.9 (17.3 to 22.5) | 522 | 28.6 (24.9 to 32.3) | 173 | 9.7 (7.9 to 11.4) | ||||
30–39 | 559 | 38.6 (34.7 to 42.5) | 275 | 20.7 (18.0 to 23.4) | 330 | 24.1 (21.5 to 26.7) | 119 | 8.6 (7.1 to 10.0) | ||||
40–49 | 572 | 39.0 (35.5 to 42.5) | 244 | 18.1 (15.6 to 20.6) | 328 | 24.2 (21.3 to 27.0) | 116 | 8.7 (6.5 to 10.8) | ||||
50–59 | 457 | 39.5 (35.9 to 43.2) | 202 | 19.7 (16.8 to 22.6) | 243 | 25.1 (22.0 to 28.2) | 94 | 9.8 (7.9 to 11.7) | ||||
≥60 | 304 | 33.7 (30.1 to 37.2) | 106 | 15.1 (11.4 to 18.8) | 122 | 16.6 (13.5 to 19.6) | 35 | 5.1 (3.0 to 7.2) | ||||
Gender | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.002 | ||||||||
Male | 1426 | 40.4 (37.9 to 43.0) | 529 | 16.3 (14.7 to 18.0) | 713 | 21.7 (19.7 to 23.8) | 228 | 7.2 (5.9 to 8.6) | ||||
Female | 1086 | 34.3 (31.4 to 37.3) | 634 | 22.6 (20.1 to 25.2) | 832 | 28.4 (25.9 to 31.0) | 309 | 10.7 (9.3 to 12.3) | ||||
Race/ethnicity | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.091 | ||||||||
Non-Hispanic white | 974 | 34.9 (32.2 to 37.8) | 586 | 20.3 (18.4 to 22.4) | 702 | 24.6 (22.7 to 26.7) | 259 | 9.2 (8.1 to 10.5) | ||||
Non-Hispanic black | 774 | 55.4 (52.5 to 58.3) | 254 | 18.4 (16.3 to 20.8) | 374 | 27.6 (23.4 to 32.3) | 123 | 8.9 (7.4 to 10.6) | ||||
Hispanic | 638 | 34.9 (32.0 to 37.9) | 263 | 14.4 (12.5 to 16.5) | 374 | 19.8 (18.0 to 21.8) | 125 | 6.7 (5.3 to 8.3) | ||||
Others/multiracial | 126 | 41.5 (34.5 to 48.9) | 60 | 17.7 (13.3 to 23.2) | 95 | 31.9 (26.8 to 37.5) | 30 | 8.9 (5.6 to 13.7) | ||||
Marital status | 0.020 | 0.041 | 0.001 | 0.010 | ||||||||
Married/living with partner | 1502 | 36.2 (33.7 to 38.8) | 699 | 18.6 (17.0 to 20.2) | 854 | 22.6 (21.0 to 24.2) | 299 | 7.9 (7.1 to 8.9) | ||||
Never married | 543 | 38.5 (34.9 to 42.1) | 234 | 17.9 (14.8 to 21.5) | 371 | 27.6 (23.9 to 31.7) | 112 | 8.1 (6.3 to 10.4) | ||||
Widowed/divorced/separated | 420 | 43.7 (38.7 to 48.9) | 204 | 23.4 (19.4 to 28.1) | 260 | 29.8 (26.1 to 33.7) | 108 | 13.1 (10.3 to 16.4) | ||||
Education level | 0.660 | 0.001 | 0.288 | 0.854 | ||||||||
<High school | 542 | 36.9 (32.8 to 41.1) | 259 | 18.3 (15.8 to 21.0) | 315 | 22.9 (19.6 to 26.6) | 123 | 8.6 (6.8 to 10.9) | ||||
≥High school | 1964 | 37.7 (35.4 to 40.1) | 902 | 19.4 (17.7 to 21.1) | 1226 | 25.1 (23.3 to 27.1) | 412 | 8.8 (7.9 to 9.9) | ||||
PIR | 0.057 | 0.019 | 0.041 | 0.040 | ||||||||
<1 | 327 | 38.0 (33.2 to 43.0) | 183 | 23.3 (20.2 to 26.7) | 236 | 28.5 (22.9 to 34.8) | 92 | 11.5 (8.9 to 14.6) | ||||
1 to <3 | 550 | 40.0 (36.2 to 44.0) | 246 | 20.2 (17.4 to 23.3) | 334 | 28.0 (24.4 to 32.0) | 120 | 9.8 (7.8 to 12.1) | ||||
≥3 | 1070 | 34.9 (32.1 to 37.8) | 481 | 17.9 (16.1 to 19.8) | 639 | 23.0 (21.3 to 24.7) | 204 | 7.7 (6.7 to 8.8) | ||||
Health factors | ||||||||||||
Self-rated health status | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | ||||||||
Excellent/very good/good | 1873 | 36.1 (33.8 to 38.6) | 837 | 17.8 (16.5 to 19.3) | 1125 | 23.3 (21.5 to 25.2) | 370 | 7.9 (7.0 to 8.8) | ||||
Fair/poor | 410 | 46.6 (41.6 to 51.8) | 236 | 30.9 (26.8 to 35.4) | 287 | 35.2 (31.4 to 39.3) | 119 | 15.1 (12.1 to 18.6) | ||||
Body mass index | 0.001 | 0.044 | 0.814 | 0.422 | ||||||||
<25.0 (underweight/normal weight) | 657 | 31.9 (28.5 to 35.5) | 345 | 18.7 (16.5 to 21.1) | 495 | 25.5 (22.8 to 28.3) | 153 | 7.9 (6.6 to 9.5) | ||||
25.0–29.9 (overweight) | 887 | 38.0 (35.6 to 40.6) | 371 | 17.5 (15.5 to 19.7) | 517 | 24.5 (22.6 to 26.5) | 180 | 9.1 (7.7 to 10.7) | ||||
≥30.0 (obese) | 950 | 42.9 (39.7 to 46.2) | 434 | 21.3 (18.4 to 24.4) | 521 | 24.5 (22.0 to 27.2) | 198 | 9.4 (7.9 to 11.1) | ||||
Prescription medication use | 0.565 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | ||||||||
No | 1417 | 37.9 (35.6 to 40.2) | 592 | 16.3 (15.0 to 17.5) | 837 | 22.7 (21.2 to 24.3) | 270 | 7.2 (6.4 to 8.0) | ||||
Yes | 1094 | 37.2 (34.4 to 40.1) | 571 | 22.4 (20.1 to 24.9) | 708 | 27.0 (24.8 to 29.5) | 267 | 10.6 (9.2 to 12.3) | ||||
Health insurance | 0.146 | 0.013 | 0.710 | 0.208 | ||||||||
No | 645 | 40.1 (35.9 to 44.4) | 326 | 21.9 (19.2 to 24.9) | 384 | 24.3 (21.2 to 27.7) | 150 | 9.7 (7.9 to 11.9) | ||||
Yes | 1865 | 36.9 (34.5 to 39.4) | 836 | 18.5 (17.0 to 20.1) | 1158 | 24.9 (23.3 to 26.6) | 386 | 8.6 (7.8 to 9.4) | ||||
Symptomatic depression | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | ||||||||
Not symptomatic (PHQ-9<10) | 2109 | 36.4 (34.1 to 38.7) | 929 | 17.8 (16.3 to 19.3) | 1237 | 23.0 (21.3 to 24.9) | 398 | 7.5 (6.6 to 8.6) | ||||
Symptomatic (PHG-9≥10) | 165 | 54.7 (47.6 to 61.7) | 138 | 52.0 (43.7 to 60.1) | 171 | 59.6 (51.6 to 67.1) | 89 | 33.5 (26.3 to 41.6) | ||||
Lifestyle factors | ||||||||||||
Smoking status (cotinine in ng/mL) | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.493 | 0.008 | ||||||||
Non-smoker (≤10) | 1649 | 34.8 (32.6 to 37.2) | 725 | 17.2 (15.6 to 18.9) | 1081 | 25.2 (23.3 to 27.1) | 351 | 8.3 (7.4 to 9.4) | ||||
Current smoker (>10) | 711 | 44.4 (40.9 to 47.9) | 369 | 24.8 (22.2 to 27.4) | 382 | 24.3 (21.7 to 27.0) | 158 | 10.5 (9.2 to 11.9) | ||||
Alcohol intake** | ||||||||||||
Frequency | 0.118 | 0.136 | 0.830 | 0.044 | ||||||||
None | 363 | 41.0 (36.5 to 45.7) | 166 | 23.3 (19.1 to 28.0) | 193 | 24.7 (21.2 to 28.5) | 84 | 11.5 (9.0 to 14.7) | ||||
Low/moderate | 1383 | 36.7 (34.1 to 39.5) | 649 | 18.7 (16.9 to 20.7) | 824 | 23.9 (21.9 to 26.0) | 273 | 7.8 (6.8 to 8.9) | ||||
Excessive | 179 | 40.1 (33.4 to 47.3) | 90 | 20.2 (16.3 to 24.8) | 108 | 25.0 (20.5 to 30.1) | 42 | 10.0 (6.9 to 14.3) | ||||
Binge drinking (days in preceding year consumed five or more alcoholic drinks in a single day) | 0.382 | 0.075 | 0.701 | 0.742 | ||||||||
None | 898 | 37.1 (34.5 to 39.7) | 415 | 18.7 (16.7 to 20.8) | 533 | 23.7 (21.6 to 26.0) | 175 | 7.8 (6.9 to 8.9) | ||||
≤12 days | 347 | 35.6 (31.6 to 39.8) | 167 | 17.9 (14.7 to 21.5) | 226 | 25.1 (21.8 to 28.8) | 77 | 8.1 (6.1 to 10.7) | ||||
>12 days | 315 | 39.2 (34.9 to 43.7) | 158 | 20.8 (17.5 to 24.6) | 174 | 23.6 (20.3 to 27.2) | 64 | 8.7 (6.5 to 11.5) | ||||
Caffeine intake (daily average, mg) | 0.372 | 0.052 | 0.463 | 0.126 | ||||||||
0–29.5 | 476 | 33.0 (28.5 to 37.9) | 214 | 16.0 (12.6 to 20.1) | 334 | 26.6 (22.5 to 31.1) | 90 | 7.0 (4.7 to 10.5) | ||||
29.6–97.0 | 516 | 36.7 (32.2 to 41.5) | 237 | 18.1 (15.3 to 21.2) | 315 | 22.9 (19.2 to 27.2) | 115 | 7.4 (5.8 to 9.4) | ||||
97.1–208.5 | 515 | 37.3 (33.7 to 41.1) | 239 | 20.5 (17.4 to 24.0) | 312 | 25.3 (22.1 to 28.8) | 117 | 9.9 (7.9 to 12.4) | ||||
>208.5 | 538 | 37.7 (33.8 to 41.8) | 268 | 21.7 (18.2 to 25.6) | 306 | 22.8 (19.9 to 25.8) | 121 | 9.8 (7.4 to 12.9) | ||||
Job characteristics | ||||||||||||
Hours worked in all jobs in preceding week | 0.001 | 0.006 | 0.336 | 0.035 | ||||||||
<48 | 1637 | 34.4 (32.0 to 37.0) | 781 | 18.4 (17.0 to 19.9) | 1061 | 24.4 (22.7 to 26.2) | 350 | 8.2 (7.3 to 9.2) | ||||
≥48 | 792 | 46.1 (42.2 to 50.1) | 337 | 21.4 (18.5 to 24.6) | 417 | 25.9 (23.0 to 29.0) | 164 | 10.5 (8.7 to 12.5) | ||||
Years worked in current/main job | 0.153 | 0.804 | 0.017 | 0.562 | ||||||||
<10 | 1820 | 37.0 (34.7 to 39.3) | 883 | 19.3 (17.6 to 21.0) | 1209 | 26.0 (24.1 to 28.0) | 413 | 8.6 (7.6 to 9.7) | ||||
≥10 | 691 | 39.0 (35.7 to 42.5) | 280 | 19.0 (16.1 to 22.3) | 336 | 21.7 (19.0 to 24.6) | 124 | 9.3 (7.4 to 11.7) | ||||
Occupation categories | 0.001 | 0.044 | 0.003 | 0.593 | ||||||||
White collar | 1167 | 34.1 (31.5 to 36.8) | 586 | 18.9 (16.7 to 21.2) | 817 | 25.9 (23.9 to 27.9) | 273 | 8.5 (7.4 to 9.9) | ||||
Service | 554 | 36.0 (32.1 to 40.1) | 278 | 20.3 (17.9 to 22.9) | 361 | 26.2 (22.7 to 30.1) | 135 | 10.0 (8.0 to 12.3) | ||||
Farm and blue collar | 786 | 46.2 (42.3 to 50.2) | 299 | 19.2 (16.6 to 22.2) | 366 | 21.5 (19.1 to 24.0) | 129 | 8.6 (7.0 to 10.6) | ||||
Sleep characteristics | ||||||||||||
Physician-diagnosed sleep disorder†† | 0.005 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | ||||||||
No | 2335 | 37.0 (34.8 to 39.4) | 1016 | 17.7 (16.1 to 19.3) | 1396 | 23.9 (22.2 to 25.8) | 454 | 8.0 (7.1 to 9.0) | ||||
Yes | 174 | 46.1 (39.5 to 52.7) | 144 | 41.6 (36.0 to 47.5) | 146 | 36.9 (31.4 to 42.8) | 82 | 20.9 (15.5 to 27.5) | ||||
Sleeping pills or other medication use to help with sleep (times in preceding month) | 0.189 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | ||||||||
<5 | 2361 | 37.3 (35.1 to 39.6) | 1010 | 17.2 (15.8 to 18.7) | 1408 | 23.6 (21.9 to 25.2) | 463 | 7.8 (7.0 to 8.7) | ||||
≥5 | 151 | 41.5 (34.7 to 48.7) | 153 | 48.6 (43.3 to 54.0) | 136 | 42.4 (37.1 to 47.9) | 74 | 23.0 (18.5 to 28.4) |
*Sleep duration <7 hours per week/work day.
†Participants categorised as having poor sleep quality if the response to any of the six sleep problem items was 16–30 times/month.
‡Participants with ADL score ≥2 (sample mean).
§Participants with poor sleep quality and poor ADL score.
¶Unweighted sample size.
**Self-reported alcohol intake for the 12 months that preceded interview was determined for participants aged ≥20 years. Alcohol intake was categorised as: excessive (>2 drinks per day for men and >1 drink per day for women), low/moderate (>0 but <2 drinks per day for men and ≤1 drink per day for women) and none.
††Participant ever told by a doctor or other health professional that they had a sleep disorder, including sleep apnoea, insomnia, restless leg syndrome or ‘other’.
ADL, activities of daily living; NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; PHQ-9, Patient Health Questionnaire-9; PIR, poverty income ratio.