Confounding and confounders
R McNamee
 
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On causes:
Neyman J. Sur les applications de la thar des probabilities aux experiences Agaricales: essay des principles.  Transl. D Dabrowska, T Speed in Statistical Sciences 1990;5:463-472.

Lewis D. Causation. J Philos 1973; 70:556-67.
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Rubin DB. Estimating causal effects of treatments in randomized and non-randomized studies. J Educ Psych 1974;66:688-701.

Rothman KJ.  Causes.  Am J Epidemiology 1976;104:587-92.

Sobel MS.  Causal inference in the social sciences.  J Am Statist Assoc 2000; 95:647-651.
 

On adjusting for pregnancy history:
Nurminen T. On adjusting for the outcome of previous pregnancies in epidemiologic reproductive studies. Epidemiology 1994;6:84-86.

Weinberg C.  Should we adjust for pregnancy history when the exposure effect is transient?  (Letter) Epidemiology 1995;6:335-336.

Nurminen T  Should we adjust for pregnancy history when the exposure effect is transient?  (Reply) Epidemiology 1995;6:336-337.
 

On selection effects in occupational cohorts:
Fox AJ, Collier PF.  Low mortality rates in industrial cohort studies due to selection for work and survival in the industry.  Br J Prev Soc Med 1976;30:225-230.

McMicheal AJ. Standardised mortality ratios and the �healthy worker effect�: scratching beneath the surface. J Occup Med 1976;18:165-168.

Wen CP, Tsai SP, Gibson RL. Anatomy of the healthy worker effect: a critical review. J Occup Med 1983;25:283-289.

Sterling TD, Weinkam JJ. Extent, persistence and constancy of the healthy worker or healthy person effect by all and selected causes of death.  J Occup Med 1986;28:348-353.

Monson RR.  Observations on the healthy worker effect.  J Occup Med 1986;28:425-433.
 

On collapsibility definition of a confounder:
Whittemore AS. Collapsing multidimensional tables.  J R Stat Soc B 1978;40:328-340.

Boivin JF, Wacholder S. Conditions for confounding of the risk ratio and of the odds ratio. Am J Epidemiology 1985;121:152-158.

Grayson DA.. Confounding confounding. Am J Epidemiology 1987;126:546-63.

Greenland S, Morgenstern H. Poole C, Robins JM.  Re: �confounding confounding�. (Letter).  Am J Epidemiology 1989;129:1086-9.

Grayson DA.. Re: �confounding confounding�. (Reply).  Am J Epidemiology 1989;129:1089-1091.
 

On control of the healthy (shift)worker hire effect in case-control studies:
McNamee R, Binks K, Jones S, Slovak A, Cherry NM.  Shiftwork and mortality from ischaemic heart disease.  Occupational and Environmental Medicine 1996;53:367-373.

On control of the healthy worker survivor effect and similar problems:
Hertz-Picciotto, Michael Arrighi H, Suh-Woan H. Does arsenic exposure increase the risk of circulatory disease? Am J Epidemiology 2000;151:174-181.

Steenland K, Deddens J, Salvan A, Staynew L.  Negative bias in exposure-response trends in occupational studies: modelling the healthy worker survivor effect.  Am J Epidemiology 1996;143:202-210.

Robins JM, Blevins D, Ritter G, Wulfson M. G-estimation of the effect of prophylaxis therapy for pneumocystis carinii pneumonia on the survival of AIDS patients.  Epidemiology 1992;3:319-336.

Robins J. A new approach to causal inference in mortality studies with a sustained exposure period: application to control of the healthy worker effect. Math Modelling 1986;7:1393-1512.

Sterne J, Tilling K.  G-estimation of causal effects, allowing for time-varying confounding.  The Stata Journal 2002;2:164-182